A solar system is a group of heavenly bodies consisting of a star and the planets and other objects orbiting around it. We are most familiar with our own solar system, which includes Earth, seven other major planets, and the sun. Our solar system also includes many smaller objects that revolve around the sun, such as dwarf planets, meteoroids, and comets; and a thin cloud of gas and dust known as the interplanetary medium. More than 100 moons, also called satellites, orbit the planets.

An orbiting solar telescope known as the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) studies the sun's interior, its atmosphere, and the solar wind, a stream of electrically charged particles that flow from the sun's surface. The European Space Agency launched the telescope in 1995. Image credit: NASA/ESA/Solar & Heliospheric Observatory

Besides the sun, Earth, and Earth's moon, many objects in our solar system are visible to the unaided eye. These objects include the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; the brightest asteroids; and occasional comets and meteors. Many more objects in the solar system can be seen with telescopes.

Since the 1990's, astronomers have discovered many planets orbiting distant stars, though the planets cannot be seen directly. By studying the masses and orbits of these planets, astronomers hope to learn more about solar systems in general. For example, our own solar system contains four small, rocky planets near the sun—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—and four giant, gaseous planets farther out—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Astronomers were surprised to find that other stars have giant, gaseous planets in close orbits. For example, a planet nearly the size of Jupiter orbits the star 51 Pegasi closer than Mercury orbits our own Sun.

Our solar system

The sun is the largest and most important object in our solar system. It contains 99.8 percent of the solar system's mass (quantity of matter). The sun provides most of the heat, light, and other energy that makes life possible.

The sun is much larger than Earth. From the sun's center to its surface, it is about 109 times the radius of Earth. Some of the streams of gas rising from the solar surface are larger than Earth. Image credit: World Book illustration by Roberta Polfus

The sun's outer layers are hot and stormy. The hot gases and electrically charged particles in those layers continually stream into space and often burst out in solar eruptions. This flow of gases and particles forms the solar wind, which bathes everything in the solar system.

Planets orbit the sun in oval-shaped paths called ellipses, according to a law of planetary motion discovered by German astronomer Johannes Kepler in the early 1600's. The sun is slightly off to the side of the center of each ellipse at a point called a focus. The focus is actually a point inside the sun—but off its center—called the barycenter of the solar system.

The inner four planets consist chiefly of iron and rock. They are known as the terrestrial (earthlike) planets because they are somewhat similar in size and composition. The four outer planets are giant worlds with thick, gaseous outer layers. Almost all their mass consists of hydrogen and helium, giving them compositions more like that of the sun than that of Earth. Beneath their outer layers, the giant planets have no solid surfaces. The pressure of their thick atmospheres turns their insides liquid, though they may have rocky cores.

Dwarf planets are round objects smaller than planets that also orbit the sun. Unlike a planet, a dwarf planet lacks sufficient gravitational pull to sweep other objects from the region of its orbit. As a result, dwarf planets are found among populations of smaller bodies. The dwarf planet Ceres, for example, orbits in a region of space called the Main Belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Ceres shares the Main Belt with millions of smaller asteroids.

Pluto is so far from Earth that even powerful telescopes reveal little detail of its surface. The Hubble Space Telescope gathered the light for the pictures of Pluto shown here. Image credit: NASA

Other dwarf planets orbit primarily beyond Neptune in a region of space known as the Kuiper Play this Pronunciation. «KY pur» belt. They share this region with many smaller, icy, cometlike bodies.Together, these objects are known as the Kuiper belt objects (KBO’s). Compared to the planets, KBO’s tend to follow irregular, elongated orbits. Dwarf planets of the Kuiper belt include Pluto and a larger body designated 2003 UB313.

Moons orbit all the planets except Mercury and Venus. The inner planets have few moons. Earth has one, and Mars has two tiny satellites. The giant outer planets, however, resemble small solar systems, with many moons orbiting each planet. Jupiter has at least 63 moons. Jupiter's four largest moons are known as the Galilean satellites because the Italian astronomer Galileo discovered them in 1610 with one of the first telescopes. The largest Galilean satellite—and the largest satellite in the solar system—is Ganymede, which is even bigger than Mercury. Saturn has at least 56 moons. The largest of Saturn's moons, Titan, has an atmosphere thicker than Earth's and a diameter larger than that of Mercury. Uranus has at least 27 moons, and Neptune has at least 13. The giant planets probably have more small moons not yet discovered.

Many dwarf planets, asteroids, and other bodies also have smaller moons. Pluto’s moon measures half Pluto’s diameter. 2003 UB313 has a smaller moon around 1⁄8 its diameter.

Rings of dust, rock, and ice chunks encircle all the giant planets. Saturn's rings are the most familiar, but thin rings also surround Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune.

Comets are snowballs composed mainly of ice and rock. When a comet approaches the sun, some of the ice in its nucleus (center) turns into gas. The gas shoots out of the sunlit side of the comet. The solar wind then carries the gas outward, forming it into a long tail.

Ganymede, a moon of Jupiter, has craters and cracks on its surface. Asteroids and comets that hit Ganymede made the craters. The cracks are due to expansion and contraction of the surface. Image credit: NASA

Astronomers divide comets into two main types, long-period comets, which take 200 years or more to orbit the sun, and short-period comets, which complete their orbits in fewer than 200 years. The two types come from two regions at the edges of the solar system. Long-period comets originate in the Oort cloud, a cluster of comets far beyond the orbit of Pluto. The Oort cloud was named after the Dutch astronomer Jan H. Oort, who first suggested its existence. Short-period comets come from the Kuiper belt. Many of the objects in the Oort cloud and the Kuiper belt may be chunks of rock and ice known as planetesimals left over from the formation of the solar system.

Asteroids are minor planets. Some have elliptical orbits that pass inside the orbit of Earth or even that of Mercury. Others travel on a circular path among the outer planets. Most asteroids circle the sun in a region called the asteroid belt, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The belt contains more than 200 asteroids larger than 60 miles (100 kilometers) in diameter. Scientists estimate that there are more than 750,000 asteroids in the belt with diameters larger than 3/5 mile (1 kilometer). There are millions of smaller asteroids. Astronomers have even found several large asteroids with smaller asteroids orbiting them.

The asteroid Ida is about 35 miles (55 kilometers) long. It is one of thousands of asteroids in the asteroid belt, a region between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Image credit: NASA

Meteoroids are chunks of metal or rock smaller than asteroids. When meteoroids plunge into Earth's atmosphere, they form bright streaks of light called meteors as they disintegrate. Some meteoroids reach the ground, and then they become known as meteorites. Most meteoroids are broken chunks of asteroids that resulted from collisions in the asteroid belt. During the 1990's, astronomers discovered a number of meteoroids that came from Mars and from the moon. Many tiny meteoroids are dust from the tails of comets.

Heliosphere is a vast, teardrop-shaped region of space containing electrically charged particles given off by the sun. Scientists do not know the exact distance to the heliopause, the limit of the heliosphere. Many astronomers think that the heliopause is about 9 billion miles (15 billion kilometers) from the sun at the blunt end of the "teardrop."

Formation of our solar system

Many scientists believe that our solar system formed from a giant, rotating cloud of gas and dust known as the solar nebula. According to this theory, the solar nebula began to collapse because of its own gravity. Some astronomers speculate that a nearby supernova (exploding star) triggered the collapse. As the nebula contracted, it spun faster and flattened into a disk.

The nebular theory indicates that particles within the flattened disk then collided and stuck together to form asteroid-sized objects called planetesimals. Some of these planetesimals combined to become the nine large planets. Other planetesimals formed moons, asteroids, and comets. The planets and asteroids all revolve around the sun in the same direction, and in more or less the same plane, because they originally formed from this flattened disk.

Most of the material in the solar nebula, however, was pulled toward the center and formed the sun. According to the theory, the pressure at the center became great enough to trigger the nuclear reactions that power the sun. Eventually, solar eruptions occurred, producing a solar wind. In the inner solar system, the wind was so powerful that it swept away most of the lighter elements -- hydrogen and helium. In the outer regions of the solar system, however, the solar wind was much weaker. As a result, much more hydrogen and helium remained on the outer planets. This process explains why the inner planets are small, rocky worlds and the outer planets, except for Pluto, are giant balls composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium.

Other solar systems

Several other stars have disk-shaped clouds around them that seem to be solar systems in formation. In 1983, an infrared telescope in space photographed such a disk around Vega, the brightest star in the constellation Lyra. This discovery represented the first direct evidence of such material around any star except the sun. In 1984, astronomers photographed a similar disk around Beta Pictoris, a star in the southern constellation Pictor.

By the early 2000's, astronomers had discovered that more than 50 stars like our sun have planets orbiting them. In almost all cases, they found only one planet per star. All the planets found are probably gaseous with no solid surface.

Contributor: Jay M. Pasachoff, Ph.D., Field Memorial Professor of Astronomy and Director, Hopkins Observatory of Williams College.

How to cite this article: To cite this article, World Book recommends the following format: Pasachoff, Jay M. "Solar system." World Book Online Reference Center. 2004. World Book, Inc. http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Article?id=ar518960.

Kelvin Manning has seen the space shuttles up close for about 15 years. Now he's excited about helping NASA give birth to a new spacecraft, one destined to go to the moon.

The Orion capsule and its service module will take shape in the high bay of the Operations and Checkout Building a few feet from Manning's office and those of the Constellation Program at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

Coordination is the key word for the engineer's role as he watches over Orion's development from the Kennedy perspective. For Manning, it presents the latest challenge in a career that has spanned 25 years and seen aerospace from several different perspectives.

Image right: Kelvin Manning will oversee work on the Orion spacecraft at Kennedy. The capsule is slated to carry astronauts to the moon. Photo credit: Steven Siceloff, NASA/KSC
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"Coming out of the Air Force Academy I wanted to fly, but I didn't end up being a pilot, so I worked space operations," he explained.

Opting out of the military, Manning worked for several contractors including McDonnell Douglas as the company supported the shuttle program at NASA Headquarters in Washington. Seeing an opportunity to work at Kennedy, Manning signed up for NASA operations.

"My first interview with NASA was with (astronaut) Bob Crippen," he said. "It was a great discussion."

Manning was eager to see the launch pads, processing facilities and shuttles up close as soon as he arrived at the Florida center.

Before long, Manning started working third shifts, holidays and weekends to learn about the orbiters and NASA culture. He moved up to become NASA vehicle manager for Columbia, then NASA test director. Next came the role of flow director for Atlantis, a position which called on him to make sure the orbiter is ready for its mission.

While overseeing Atlantis' preparation for the STS-110 mission, he ended up readying the vehicle for Air Force Academy classmate Michael Bloomfield, who was commanding the flight to the International Space Station.

"I felt privileged to know the guy," Manning said.

Manning next took on a project to replace the spacecraft fleet he had grown so familiar with. The effort, known then as an orbital space plane, did not have a firm timeline because no one was sure when the space shuttle would be retired.

But with a firm directive in the nation's Vision for Space Exploration, the Constellation project Program had a clear destination and Manning knew he would be watching over a capsule designed for the moon instead of a space plane.

"What's different was the decision to retire the space shuttle in 2010," he explained. "That's pretty firm."

Lockheed Martin was chosen to build the capsule, which will fly its first missions to the International Space Station. Although the large components of the capsule will be built elsewhere, they will be assembled into one spacecraft at the Operations and Checkout Building. "This is going to be more or less a Lockheed Martin factory," Manning said.

Image above: Artistic concept of the Orion spacecraft atop an Ares I booster. Photo credit: NASA/KSC
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It is part of Manning's duty to get the Kennedy Space Center ready for the new spacecraft, from the facility at the Operations and Checkout Building, to the reconfigured launch pad to stacking the modules on top of a shuttle-derived, solid-fueled rocket booster and liquid-fueled upper stage.

The goal is a simpler, safer manned spacecraft, but Manning left no doubt about the challenge of handling a program from the ground up.

"This is the hardest job I've ever had," he said. "Working with a new program, you understand the depth of the shuttle program."

How different is the capsule from the orbiter, on a scale of one to 10?

"I would call it an 8 1/2, nine."

For those looking for a concrete sign of progress, Manning points to April 2009.

"When we start getting ready to do this first test flight (of the Ares I booster), that's going to be a big deal. Here, internally, when you start stacking those boosters and the test articles start rolling in, it'll be more real for folks. . . . It's real for me right now."

تحقيقاتي كه به تازگي توسط دو فيزيكدان انجام شده نشان مي دهد كه ميزان ماده از ميزان انرژ‍ي موجود در جهان براي هميشه بيشتر خواهد بود . 

انشتين نشان داد كه ماده و انرژي نسخه هاي متفاوتي از يكديگر هستند . او با ارائه ي فرمول E=mc²  نشان داد كه چه ميزان انژي از تبديل جرم هر ماده مي توان بدست آورد .

در حال حاضر ما قادريم قسمت اعظم جهان خود را مشاهده كنيم اما با انبساط جهان ، اجسام دوردست هر لحظه سريع تر از ما دور دور مي شوند و روزي مي رسد كه اين اجسام با سرعتي كه فراتر از سرعت نور به نظر خواهد رسيد از ما دور خواهند شد و در آن هنگام ما تنها مي توانيم اجرام موجود در خوشه ي كهكشاني محلي خود را تماشا كنيم . هنگامي كه سرعت جسمي از سرعت نور فراتر رود آن جسم با توجه به فرمول انشتين به تشعشعات انرژي تبديل خواهد شد .

با توجه به اين نظريه اكنون فيزيكدان ها و كيهان شناسان بر اين باورند كه تريليون ها سال ديگر تمام ماده ي موجود در جهان به تشعشعات انرژي تبديل خواهد شد.

اما فشار ماده ي تاريك يا همان نيرويي كه باعث شتاب گرفتن جريان انبساط عالم مي شود شايد بتواند پيشگويي بالا را به نفع ماده تغيير دهد .دو فيزيكدان به نام هاي Lawrence Krauss  و Robert Scherrer به تازگي با ارائه ي مقاله اي در نشريه ي Physical Review  اعلام كردند تا زماني كه ماده ي تاريك باعث انبساط جهان مي شود ، نسبت ميان ماده و تشعشعات انرژي تقريبا همين گونه باقي خواهد ماند .

Krauss و   Scherrer محاسبه كرده اند كه تشعشات انرژي كه ازمحو شدن ماده بوجود آمده اند با همان سرعت بوجود آمده ، رقيق خواهند شد و نسبت ميان ماده و انرژي همانگونه كه هست باقي مي ماند :

هنگامي كه مقداري ماده در اين فرايند به تشعشع انرژي تبديل مي شود ، انرژي تاريك فاصله ي ميان فوتون هاي آن را افزايش مي دهد و باعث كاهش انرژي و غلظت آن در جهان مي شود . اين فرايند باعث خواهد شد تا ميزان ماده براي هميشه بر ميزان انزژي در جهان چيره باشد .